Examining The Enzyme Amylase And Its Uses Science Essay

Examining The Enzyme Amylase And Its Uses Science Essay A catalyst is a substance used to speed up a particular reaction and remain unchanged at the end of the reaction. Reactions that are sped up by catalysts can range from making sure maximum ammonia is obtained in industries to making sure that every starch particle in our bodies has been broken down during digestion. Looking at enzymes, enzymes can be defined as biological catalysts they speed up metabolic reactions that are taking part in living organisms. Enzymes are protein in nature and are made up of globular proteins. This gives them a precise 3D shape that has hydrophilic R groups on the outside that make them soluble. Enzymes come from microorganisms, plants or animals. An enzymes features include an active site which is a depression in the enzyme to which a molecule (substrate) can bind and be broken down into two or more products. The shape of the active site is what determines what substrates can fit and substrates are required to fit perfectly in an enzyme for them to be b roken down. Therefore an enzyme will act on only one type of a specific substrate molecule. Enzymes also reduce the activation energy this is the initial amount of energy that is required to increase the rate of a particular reaction. The rate of a reaction of an enzyme depends on how many enzyme molecules there are, how many substrate molecules there are and the speed that the enzyme is able to convert this substrate into a product. However the rate of reactions of enzymes does not always run smoothly it is affected by: enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, pH, enzyme cofactors, temperature and enzyme inhibitors. Enzymes tend to denature when exposed to high temperature that is higher than 40à ¢Ã‚ Ã‚ °C because of their protein nature they are then destroyed. They also work faster at a pH of around 7 that is a neutral pH with few exceptions. Eg. Enzymes in the stomach that work within the presence of hydrochloric acid (1,2) Introduction to enzymes in industriesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Enzymes play multiple roles in industries and many industries have now turned to enzyme technology. The advantage in using enzymes is that they can catalyse the different chemical reactions, they are specific so therefore they can give pure products, and they work efficiently. Such factors play leading roles in the pharmaceutical, food and agricultural industries. When using enzymes in industries microorganisms are preferably used as the source rather than plants or animal. This is because companies find that they can be grown economically in bulk fermenters controlled conditions, they can be genetically engineered relatively easily, and mutant varieties can relatively easily be produced to improve performance and their production rate can be altered to suit the demand. When several enzymes are required to be used in more than one reaction to made a product then the enzymes are isolated and the specific enzyme is chosen for the reaction. Pure enzymes can also be used and in some case s enzymes can be used as they are without having to purify them eg.fruit juice production and meat tenderization. Industries have also found another way of using enzymes that enables them to reduce the cost of the process and also be able to re-use the enzyme after that reaction. They do this by immobilizing the enzyme. This means that the enzyme gets strapped to a solid support then put in the reaction so therefore after the enzyme has broken down that reaction it can be retrieved from the mixture. Immobilizing an enzyme also makes it more stable as it disables the enzyme to denature as a result of pH or temperature changes. Such enzymes are mostly used in the process for making sweeteners in the USA and fruitdrinks in Japan. (1,2) AMYLASE This is a digestive enzyme that plays an important role in our bodies and also in the food industry, textile and pharmaceutical industry. Amylase comes in different forms that are determined by the way in which their glycosidic bonds are attached. There is the Alpha-amylase, Beta-amylases and Gluco-amylases these include gamma-amylases and amyloglucosidases . (3,7) Below are the primary-quaternary structures of amylase. Primary Structure Secondary Structure Quatenary Structure Tertiary Structure The enzyme amylase is mainly used as a digestive enzyme. The reaction that is being broken down in the presence of amylase is the breaking down of long chain carbohydrates (polysaccharides such as starch) into disaccharides (maltose) and then monosaccharides (glucose). (3,5,6) In industries amylase is used in the following ways: In brewing and fermentation the amylase that is present in wheat breakdown the starch into fermentable sugars. They catalyze maize or potato starch to syrups in numerous reactions to syrups that contain sugars that can then be used in making sweets, or ice cream. In baked goods they pre-digest the starch that increases the performance of yeast and increases the yield of the product. In textile industry they are used to breakdown starched clothes for them to be dyed after the starch has been used as a stiffening agent to design the cotton fibres. In washing and cleaning, amylase is used to dissolve starch stains. For sizing of paper. to increase diastase in flour. Used in babyfoods. Amylase also takes out starch during jelly production. In fruit juices they remove the lees that has starch. (3,7,4) The sources of amylase is animals, plants, and microorganisms. In animals amylase is made in the salivary glands and pancreas. In plants amylase can be found in barley malt and in microorganisms they are found in the fungus Aspergillus oryzae. (1) Amylase can be produced by fungul and bacterial cultures. Of these 2 a bacterial culture shows more of an advantage as they display stability in temperature than amylase from fungul cultures. In the bacterial culture the amylase is produced by genetically modified microorganisms these are different types of bacillus. The amylase that is produced by fungul cultures are not genetically modified but once when they were genetically modified Trichoderma was used. (7) A cofactor is a substance that must be attached to the active site before a substrate can be able to bind and enable the enzyme to work properly. These come in the form of an ion or a molecule. The cofactor of amylase is calcium ions (1,6,) An inhibitor is another molecule (other than a substrate) that is very similar to a substrate that takes over the active site and therefore reduces the rate of activity of that enzyme. Inhibitors can be classified as competitive inhibitors and non-competitive inhibitors. The competitive inhibitors are the ones that temporarily bind the active site but can be reversed and overcome by increasing the concentration of the substrate whereas the non-competitive inhibitors are permanent and they destroy the catalytic activity of the enzyme. An inhibitor of amylase is phaseolamin. (1,6,4) The problem with using amylase is that when used in the brewery industry when boiling wort enzyme gets denatured by the boiling and breaking down starch to dextrins by fermentable sugars does not happen. When amylase mixed with other enzymes is used to overcome indigestion it may cause drowsiness, dizziness, blurred vision or lightheadedness.

Breaking the Disney Spell Essay

Jack Zipes, in his essay â€Å"Breaking the Disney Spell†, directly addresses the issue of what happens when a story is taken from its original oral form and written down. Zipes discusses in depth what Walt Disney has done to fairy tales and the consequences of Disney’s actions. Zipes addresses many issues, including those of context, society, and alteration of plot. He accuses Walt Disney of attacking â€Å"the literary tradition of the fairy tale† (344). While many scholars disagree with Zipes’ accusations, his essay makes very solid and well-presented points that he promptly backs with fact. Regardless of what the scholars say, Zipes was right: Oral tradition is important, and Disney’s representations of historical folktales damaged fairy tales as we know them. When Walt Disney began his cartoon and film career in 1927, he might have been unaware of how the American public would rush to purchase his â€Å"original† creations. His first cartoon, a re-creation of Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland that added a comedic spin, began his career in the cartoon industry and eventually spun his company into a billion dollar enterprise (Funding Universe). As Disney’s popularity grew, he continued to expand his film creations, but generally by copying or â€Å"re-creating† fairy tales or other historical literature. Many Americans believe that Walt Disney was the first person to create fairy tales, and Disney failed to recognize the original creators of the stories that made him so popular: the folk. Historically, fairy tales were told amongst people that historians and folklorists refer to as â€Å"the folk. † That is, the stories were shared orally, in what is commonly referred to as â€Å"sacred space† (Curry). Fairy tales were not intended to be read alone, in silence. Rather, they were created to be shared in a group of people, and, while fairy tales were saturated with meaning, that meaning could vary based on the storyteller. Fairy Tales were also often the holders of a warning or admonition that could be adjusted depending on the listener. One mother might have told her daughter one version of â€Å"Cinderella† in order to make a statement about her daughter’s life, whereas another mother might have told a completely different version of the same story. This, Zipes argues, is what made fairy tales unique and important. He comments, â€Å"A narrator or narrators told tales to bring members of a group or tribe closer together and to provide them with a sense of mission† (332). Fairy tales were told from an older generation to a younger generation. As mentioned previously, they were not shared in private, by oneself, alone with a book or videotape. Zipes comments, â€Å"This privatization violated the communal aspects of the folk tale† (335). The stories were a collective form of communication that occurred in a group setting, in a safe place, in a sacred space. Fairy tales, besides communicating moral and social messages, were a rite of passage. Martha C. Sims and Martine Stephens, both revered folklorists, make a statement about the importance of storytelling and teaching in their book Living Folklore. â€Å"Rites of passage mark notable dates or stages in a person’s life. Most rites of passage occur at times of change or transition: birth, puberty, entering adulthood or coming-of-age, marriage, and death, for example† (110). Fairy tales were used in rites of passage as a way to communicate with the younger generation about the changes that take place during puberty, adolescence, and marriage. Even in the written versions of Fairy Tales produced by the Brothers Grimm, Perrault, and other respected folklorists, scholars are able to grasp and to understand the importance of various elements that are present in the stories that show valuable truth about life adjustments and growing up. Many folklorists, however, consider Disney’s version of historical fairy tales to have stripped them of their meaning. Zipes is one of them. Zipes uses the example of Disney’s recreation of Puss in Boots to show that Disney altered the story to â€Å"use it as a self-figuration that would mark the genre for years to come† (343). Zipes argues that Disney changes the protagonist of the story from Puss to the â€Å"young king. † In the original version of the tale, the cat was the hero and the young boy he was friends with played a minor role in the tale. The boy in the original tale was not royalty at all: he was a commoner. Disney changed both the importance of the boy’s role in the story, as well as his social status. By adjusting the story, Zipes declares that Disney projected his own self into the story and presented it in a sort of auto-biographical fashion. Disney saw himself as the young king and projected that into the story. Disney did not see himself as simply an ordinary commoner: he was far above the peasant class, at least in his own mind. While many of Disney’s fans and viewers may argue that his recreation of fairy tales made little to no impact on the original meaning, Zipes believes otherwise. â€Å"Disney’s film is also an attack on the literary tradition of the fairy tale. He robs the literary tale of its voice and changes its form and meaning† (344). Disney not only adjusts the main elements of a story, but he also alters the point of view and the narrator, as we see in Puss in Boots. Instead of the story being told from Puss’ point of view, the â€Å"hero† of the story is the young boy. In Disney’s other fairy tale recreations, he often adds characters and makes them the hero or savior of the story. Often, instead of being told by a female point of view and being about women, as many fairy tales are historically represented, Disney projects a patriarchal view on the story and makes it obvious to his viewers that a woman’s life is meaningless without a man to guide her. Disney’s characters all understand the importance of waiting around for their prince to arrive and â€Å"save them† from the life that they so torturously endure. Instead of the bright, intelligent, and witty women that are evidenced in such tales as Italo Calvino’s The False Grandmother and Lasair Gheug, the King of Ireland’s Daughter, Disney’s heroines appear to be lacking not only spine, but brains as well. Many American children have grown up completely unaware that the concept of a prince saving a princess is a distinctly Disney idea. The classic fairy tales often involve feminine strength and an urging of women to be able to outsmart her predators. If a girl is not able to outsmart her attacker, she is simply killed. This is evidenced quite well in Perrault’s Little Red Riding Hood and the Brothers Grimm tale of Little Red Cap. A comparison of the two stories will bring to light the idea that if a young girl is smart enough, she can outwit any predator – even a hungry wolf. The girl in Little Red Cap is able to do just that, and escapes with her life. Contrarily, the heroine of Little Red Riding Hood is not quite clever enough, and she is â€Å"gobbled up† (Perrault 13). The concept of women needing a savior is quite obvious in the Disney version of Snow White. Zipes notes, â€Å"Snow White was his story that he had taken from the Grimm Brothers and changed completely to suit his tastes and beliefs. He cast a spell over this German tale and transformed it into something peculiarly American† (346). Maria Tatar also notes the impact of Disney’s version on the American public as she comments, â€Å"Walt Disney’s Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs has so eclipsed other versions of the story that it is easy to forget that hundreds of variants have been collected over the past century in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas† (74). In the oldest versions of Snow White, the heroine of the story does not need to be â€Å"saved† by a prince. The Brothers Grimm depict Snow White coming back to life by her coffin being jarred, which dislodged the apple in her throat (Grimm 89). Similarly, in the Lasair Gheug version of this tale, it is the king’s new wife who saves Snow White by picking the ice out of her forehead and palms (94). Disney, however, shows Snow White as a weak female who must be rescued by her â€Å"prince Charming. † She is saved, not by accident or by a minor character, but â€Å"when the prince, who has searched far and wife for her, arrives and bestows a kiss on her lips. His kiss of love is the only antidote to the queen’s poison† (Zipes 348). Disney’s portrayal of princesses or young girls as weak and frail leads Zipes to believe that Disney â€Å"perpetuated a male myth† which is, subconsciously, a celebration of his own destiny and success (348). Disney, although his primary characters are nearly always female, depicts them as weak and needy. It is only the secondary male character and the antagonist female in Disney’s stories who appear to have spines. By keeping his primary female characters weak, Disney is sending the message that women are helpless without men. Zipes, in accordance with this idea, notices that not only are the primary females in Disney’s stories kept weak, but that the male â€Å"heroes† of his tales are overly masculine and are the saviors of the stories. â€Å"In this regard,† notes Zipes, â€Å"the prince can be interpreted as Disney†¦ Snow White cannot be fulfilled until he arrives to kiss her†¦ † (349). Zipes argues that Disney, in his creation of weak females and strong male heroes, is making a statement that he, Disney, is a hero. Disney’s re-telling of these fairy tales is not simply adding his own perspective to the issue at hand. Rather, Disney completely rewrites fairy tales to mean what he wants them to mean. Most historical fairy tales have a common theme and moral in them, regardless of the story teller. From Perrault to the Brothers Grimm, much retelling is similar, with only slight variances. Disney, however, with his addition of â€Å"him† to the story, alters the story not only by point of view, but also in it’s moral and its core message. Some folklorists argue that a recreation and revision of historical folklore is necessary to ensure that the current generations retain their interest in the past. Many might argue that Disney’s retelling of fairy tales has not harmed the historical value of the stories. Benjamin Filene makes this argument in his work Romancing the Folk. â€Å"†¦ the backward glance can be more than nostalgic — that memory can create American culture anew† (236). While Filene may truly believe that it is important to incite interest in folklore amongst the youth of the current generation, Zipes disagrees. His research leads him to believe that this alteration, whether for personal gain or simply for popularizing any type of folklore, permanently hinders the message that is inherently present in the original version. Disney, in his new representations of fairy tales, loses sight of the original messages and completely removed the moral and meaning from the stories. Zipes, in Breaking the Disney Spell, provides clear evidence that Disney has violated the sanctity of fairy tales by rewriting them for his own personal pleasure and gain. By projecting himself into the fairy tales, Disney not only removes the moral message of the story, but also replaces the matriarchal values with patriarchal ones. Disney molds women to meet his standards of how women should behave, rather than portraying the strong and clever females that are visible in the original tales. While fairy tales were altered when they became a written tradition rather than an oral one, most stories still maintained their original moral values. Disney, however, strips the stories even of that in lieu of something â€Å"better†: his own pleasure and fame. After Disney, fairy tales will never be the same. Now, society is stuck with his egotistical creations that are beneficial to no one but himself. Instead of the stories being meaningful and a rite of passage, they are reduced to simply a meaningless tale of Disney’s life and goals. Zipes was right: Disney has damaged fairy tales and they will never be quite the same

The Explanations Of Working Class Underachievement Essay

This essay will aim to outline and evaluate the explanations of working class underachievement. This will be through examining the home and school factors that affect these individuals and then reaching a conclusion that highlights the most influential factors while finding connections between them. A person is considered working class if they are typically employed in manual or industrial work in order to achieve a wage. Home factors play a major role in the underachievement of the working class. The April 2013 Great British class survey found that the traditional working class had an annual average income of  £13,000, approximately  £34,000 economically worse off than the established middle class (Savage, et al., 2013). This links into an important area called material deprivation, this is the idea that children who come from families that are denied certain material things in life due to their low of income and so may not have access to, for example, standard of housing or to consumer goods which could expand intellectual understanding and this puts them at an educational disadvantage. This can be supported by Halsey (1980) who found that the most important factor that influenced whether a working class child decided to stay on at school after 16 was the amount of financial support they received. 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Romanticism And The Enlightenment - 1286 Words

The late 18th-century industrial revolution began to spread from Britain to France and the United States. This revolution has brought a new market economy, based on new technology machine tools and machine power, rather than human tools and animal power. The village exploded into a city center where people moved from farms and rural areas to new factories. Almost no provision, these jobs may be cruel. Men, women, and children work 14 hours; they used to tell the time in the sun, and now they can walk a few weeks without seeing the light of the day. The fast-growing city is dirty and crowded, working poor people often live in dirty places, chimneys make the smoke black. At the same time, the reaction to enlightenment thought is also†¦show more content†¦They rejected the rationalism and rules-driven orderliness that characterized the Neoclassical style of the Enlightenment. Like Baroque artists, Romantic artists hoped to inspire an emotional response in those who viewed their art; but instead of seeking to inspire faith as their predecessors had, most sought to evoke a nostalgic yearning for rural, pastoral life, the stirrings of life’s mysteries, and a sense of the power and grandeur of nature. Art of this period also depicted the romantic ideal of nationalism, but for reasons of length, we will focus on landscapes in this post. Although there was never a coherent group, realism was recognized as the first modern movement of art, and it rejected the traditional forms of art, literature and social organization that were eliminated after the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. In the 1940s began in France, realism revolutionized painting and expanded the concept of art. In the chaos of the revolution and wide social change, the realist painter replaces the modern life with the idealistic image of real life and the literary thought of traditional art, giving great attention to historical painting and allegory. Their choice of bringing thei r daily lives into their canvas has long embraced the avant-garde aspirations of art and life, and they have rejected picture skills, such as perspective, which foreshadowed many of the definitions of the twentieth century and theShow MoreRelated Literary Analysis of the Enlightenment Period and Romanticism1461 Words   |  6 Pageswitnessed the birth of the Enlightenment and Romantic Periods. There were similarities as well as very notable differences between the two. There were also two prominent voices that gained notoriety during each of these two periods. Voltaire is considered to be the pioneer of the power of reason and Rousseau is looked upon as a legendary figure of Nineteenth Century Romanticism. 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